CULTURE HISTORY OF AFRICA UP TO 1500AD (His 101)
THE ROMANS IN EGYPT
The
last Ptolemiac ruler was Cleopatra who fell to the lures of Mark Anthony, the
ruler of Eastern province of Rome. Both fell foul of Augustus Caesar. In A.D.
30, Augustus Caesar led Roman armies to capture Egypt. A period of
reconstruction followed. Egypt then became an Imperial state. Caesar kept Egypt
to himself although three regions led by commanders were stationed there to
subdue chaos. The emperor delegated power to a prefect as the supreme authority
over the civil and the military. A roman High priest was sent to Alexandra to
reduce clashes among different religion sect in Egypt. The Greek Gymansia which
had existed throughout the state was confined to the cities. Regular census
took place every fourteen years. Trade flourished and canals were dug to aid
irrigation for farming. A new tax on farmland was introduced and peasants were
cruelly exploited. As a result of exploitative form of taxation economic crisis
ensued. People fled in penury and money lost its value.
Rome
itself faced serious fiscal problems and Barbarian invasion. In 295AD Roman
Empire was divided into two by Emperor Diocletian: West and East.
In
305, Diocletian abdicated while Constantine succeeded as Emperor. Constantine
made Christianity a state religion and Alexandria became the centre of free
thinking education and religion. In 641, Muslim forces under Amir Ibn al-As
invaded Egypt and conquered. This began Arab rule in Egypt.
GHANA EMPIRE
Ghana
empire was located in the Western Sudan_ the Arabs called all the land south of
the Sahara and north of the forest from west to east coast ‘Bilad as Sudan’,
meaning ‘land of the Blacks’. The little information we know about Ghana Empire
was derived from archeological findings and the writing of the itinerant Muslim
Arabs such as EL-Zuhri, El-Fazari and El-Masudi and EL-Bekiri who either visited
the empire before its fall received information from the itinerant Muslim
traders.
Soninke
of Ghana acted as ‘middlemen’ or agents between the gold producer and the Arabs
who wanted to acquire it. In exchange for salt or other goods, the Soninke traded
gold. The Arabs in turn traded the gold obtained from the Soninke to Europe.
Gold was mined by a negro people in a district called Wangara, and received
salt, copper, cloth, dried fruit and cowries shell from the Soninke people in
exchange for gold. Before profits accrued from trades in gold, the rulers of
Ghana found other way of making income first by controlling the supply of gold
and second by imposing taxes on every load of goods..
The
capital of Ghana was two separate towns lying about six miles apart. One of these
was called ‘El Ghaba’ meaning ‘The Forest’ and here the King lived and held his
court. The second city Kumbi Saleh , was occupied by Muslim population,
merchants, lawyers religious teachers and others. At the peak of its expansion,
Ghana controlled Audaghost (Awdaghast). The emergence of a reformist movement
the Almoravid (El-Murabitum) among the Berbers in 11th century marked
the beginning of the collapse of Ghana Empire. Under the able leadership of Yaya
Ibn Yacin, different Berber clans joined the Almoravids movement after the
options of either been crushed or accept a purer form of Islam. After the death
of Ibn Yacin, one of his deputy commanders, Abubakri Ibn Omar assumed
leadership. Ghana was gradually conquered by the force of Omar. In 1055,
Audaghost was conquered while other tributary states under Ghana were either
absorbed into the movement or instigated to revolt. In 1076 A.D., Kumbi Saleh fell
and was conquered. But the Almorarids were unable to effectively control the
city as pockets of revolt did not cease. In 1087, Abubakir was killed while
quelling a revolt. Similarly, all the tributary states threw off their loyalty to
Ghana. In 1203, Sumanguru, the ruler of Sosso/Susu of Kaniaga to the south,
captured Ghana and enslaved its people. In 1235, he was in turned defeated and
killed by Sindiata the Madingo ruler who was to become the undisputable master
of a new empire.
MALI EMPIRE
The
authority of Sumanguru, the ruler of the Soso Kingdom short lived. He was decisively routed in AD 1235 by
Sundiata, the ruler of Mali. Sundiata absorbed the Sosso and destroyed what
remained of the Ghana Empire in 1240. He moved his capital from Jeriba in
Kangaba to Niani. He built a strong standing army with which he extended his
territories to the river Gambia in the west enclosing the gold bearing
districts of Wangara and Bambuk. By the end of 13th century, Mali
had become the richest and most powerful of the states of the Sudan.
The fame and expansionist policy of Mali was
continued by Mansa Musa, a grandson of Sundiata. Mansa Musa came to throne in
1307 AD Mansa Musa was perhaps the most famous ruler in the Western Sudan. His
famous Pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324AD is still remembered till date. With
numerous slaves and train of camels loaded with gold and gift, Mansa Musa
displayed the wealth of his empire on his way to Mecca. He was reported to have
given people gift of gold in large quantity to the extent that its value fell
for twelve years.
Mali
Empire under Mansa Musa stretched to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in the
West. Under his reign, Islam flourished and the empire prospered. On his way
back from pilgrimage, the emperor brought different Muslim scholars, scientist,
and poets to Mali. The people served as advisers and administrators to the
government. One of these was Es-Saheli who was a poet and architect who helped
him build an imperial palace great mosque qt Gao and Timbuktu (Sankore Mosque).
When
he died in 1332, Mansa Musa left behind him a remarkable empire – wealthy,
prosperous, organized and with cities renowned throughout Sudan for their
learning and culture, though his administrative ingenuity and wealth of the
empire, the fame of Mali spread to Europe and Mediterranean world.
After
Mansa Musa, his son and successor, Maghan, was very weak and thus, Mali grew
weaker. The Mossi people of the Upper Volta and Gao asserted their freedom.
Sulaiman who succeeded Maghan maintained stability of the empire.
SONGHAI EMPIRE
Songhai
empire emerged from an urban centre of Kukia which was the meeting point for
different migrants from North Africa. Kukia was located in the Dendi Region on
the bend of River Niger. The region witnessed waves of migration from the
North. By seven century, a group of migrants from the north probably Christian
Berbers who probably fled in the face of persecution by the Muslims settled in
the region and mixed with the agriculturists and fisherfolk they met on ground.
They created the Za or Dia ruling
dynasty. They later moved the seat of their government from Kukia to Gao. Gao
rose to become a trading point in the Western Sudan.
About
AD 1464, a strong ruler named Sonni Ali emerged as a ruler of Songhai. Sonni
Ali was a great warrior and conqueror. He matched / led his army against
Timbuktu in 1468 took it, killed many of its citizens and carried many off as
slaves. He led another campaign against Jenne, a peaceful town celebrate for
its trade and learning, although it took him some years before he finally
conquered it. At the time of his death in AD 1492, Sonni Ali had established a
fairly stable empire over much of the reaches of the middle an upper empire.
But significantly, in spite o his achievements, Sonni Ali was criticized by Muslim
savants who described him as cruel dictator. One major claim of these Muslim
scholars was that not only did Ali attacked Jenne and Timbuktu, he also
persecuted Muslim scholars there. He was therefore described as not a true
believer. But it should be noted that, Sonni himself was a devout muslim. He
was sympathetic to the work of Muslim within his state and encouraged Muslim
and scholars. But he could not spare any disobedience in spite of religion.
Timbuktu Jenne and Walata flourished under Askia Muhammedas centre of learning
and religion. In fact, under Askia Muhammed, Timbuktu became a great centre
that its university, one of the first in Africa was visited by Muslim scholars
all over the world. He divided his provinces and put each under a governor. He
created several central officers and ministries. He instituted a well organized
system of taxation whereby each town had its own tax collector.
With Muslim population swelling the empire,
Songhai flourished. Sudan gold continued to flow northward together with
slaves, ivory, ebony and ostrich feathers, and in exchange for copper and iron,
brassware, sword blades from Spain and Germany, cloth and of course salt. As result of internal division and external
invasion, Songahi fell. In 1528 Muhammed Toure was deposed by his son. While the
empire was riddled with succession disputes, Songahi still had to contend with
external invasion from their northern neighbor, Morocco. The Moors of Morocco
invaded Songahi over the control of the salt mine in Taghaza. At the battle of
Tondibi in AD 1591, the Moorish army inflicted a crushing defeat on the Songhai
army. But significantly, the invasion of
Songahi by Moroccan army can not be divorced from the cupidity of Morocco for
Sogahi wealth, particularly gold. The Pasahalic administration imposed on
Songahi by the Moors could not last as their authority was met with pockets of
resitance.