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Wednesday 24 August 2011

Oyo Empire up till 1893


 Oyo Empire up to the End of 1893

By Shina Alimi and A.O. Adesoji


Land and the People



The origin of the Yoruba is still not very clear but traditions of origin indicate that the Yoruba have been living in their present habitat from time immemorial. One version of these traditions talks of external migration into their present abode. It is stated that the Yoruba migrated from the East, the obscured region which has always been confused for Mecca, Yemen, Egypt or Benin. This tradition of migration also talks of a group led by a crown prince, Oduduwa (that later became the father of the Yoruba people) who was driven out of Mecca by the Muslim for relapsing into idolatry and paganism. By the time Oduduwa and his party reached Ile-Ife (the cradle of the Yoruba race), he was said to have met another group of people whom he fought and imposed his authority. While at Ile-Ife, Oduduwa had seven children from whom sprang the various group of the Yoruba nation. The first born, Owu, a princess, became the mother of Olowu (the King of Owu). The second child Alaketu, also a princess, was the progenitor of the Ketu while the third, a prince, became the King of Benin. The fourth child was Orangun, who became the King of Ila while the fifth was the Onisabe, the king of the Sabes. Olupopo was the sixth child and was the king and the progenitor of the Popo people. The seventh child (sometimes confused for the grandchild) was Oranmiyan, a warlike prince, the progenitor of the Oyos and founder of Oyo Ile.

Before the present borders were imposed on Africa at the close of nineteenth century, the Yoruba speaking people had occupied an area stretch between rivers Niger in Nigeria and Mono in Togo. The area is dotted with hills, rivers, rocks and low flat plateau. The land is fertile and fairly rich in natural resources. The vegetation of the area varies from forest to savannah. The weather experienced in this area are dry and wet seasons. These geographical and topographical features determine the form of occupation predominant among the Yoruba. Hence, agriculture, hunting, smithery, and carving were popular among them. The Yoruba people were also famous for their trade and commerce. While trading goods and services with their neighbours, they also exchanged ideas of new technologies and developments. Consequently, all these factors aided the concentration of population and the growth of towns and cities. In fact, one of these towns, Oyo, soon grew to become a great empire, expansive in size and mighty in strength.

Origin and Growth of Oyo Empire

Oyo was founded about fourteenth century by Oranmiyan, an adventurous war-like Ife prince, who is also regarded as the founder of the present dynasty in Benin. Hence the Oyo people traced their lineage to Oduduwa through his son Oranmiyan. The first location of Oyo was situated at Ajaka (Oyo koro), a grassland south of river Niger. This site was strategic for a number of reasons. In the first instance, it was very suitable for agriculture and hunting, thus making food production quite easy. The site was also located on a major trans-sahara south route. Hence, the people of Oyo participated actively as the middlemen between their neighbours to the north and their kinsmen in the forest in the trans-sahara trade. However, the geographical features of the area made the site vulnerable to attacks from their war-like neighbours (such as the Bariba) to the north.

Shortly before his return to Ile-Ife, Oranmiyan had moved the capital of Oyo to Oko. He left behind his two famous sons, Ajaka and Şango. At the departure of Oranmiyan to Ile-Ife, Ajaka (the real name being Ajuan) first became regent and later king (Alaafin). The young Ajaka was a weak Oba who devoted his time to husbandry. He could not provide the required warlike spirit and protection much cherished by his people. Consequently, he was deposed and replaced by his more belligerent brother, Şango. It should be noted that, Alaafin Ajaka cannot be ruled as a man of straw. He was only of a peaceful disposition.

Alaafin Şango was described as a man of a wild disposition. He was a very powerful and war-like Oba who provoked war in peace time. He was reputed for his powerful magic which enabled him to emit fire and smoke from his mouth. The sight of Şango was frightening to his chiefs and dreadful to his neighbours. During his reign, he fought wars on all major fronts and successfully defended his kingdom. Among his significant achievement was the liberation of Oyokoro from the tutelage of the invaders. But the seven years reign of Şango was devoted to fighting war and restlessness. He was also the architect of his own peril. In one of his demonstrations of magical power, Şango evoked lightening and thunder against his palace and thus burnt down his wives and children.

The frustrated king committed suicide by hanging himself in a place called Koso. Hence the Yoruba adage Şango so ni koso or Obakoso  (the King died at koso or King of koso).Today, Şango  is not only a popular deity in the pantheon of the Yoruba, but also attracts considerable number of worshipers both at home and in the diaspora.

Significantly, the death of the warlike prince spurred the Oyo people to entreat the once peaceful prince, Ajaka to return to the throne. Perhaps because of his first experience on the throne, Ajaka retuned a belligerent man. His first task was to fight the Nupe (Tapa) people to standstill. In reorganizing his kingdom, Ajaka adopted aggressive strategy. He provoked civil wars among his subjects and vassal and thus established his sovereign over Oyo people. Until the reign of Onigbogi, subsequent rulers of Oyo ruled in peace with little adventure. Oyo was attacked and chased out of their land by the Tapas. They took refuge in Bariba  land where Alaafin Onigbogi died. At least three other Alaafin of Oyo (Eguguoju, Orompoto, Ajiboyede) died in exile. It was not until the reign of Alafin Abipa (the ghost catcher) that the Oyo people returned to their old site. The succeeding Alaafin were notorious for their despotic tendency and temperament. They were Obalokun Agana Erin, Odarawu, Karan, Jayin, Ayibi, Osinyabo, Ojigi, Gberu, Amuniwaye and Onisile. They died either by their own cruelty or were asked to commit suicide by their subjects.

Political Organisation

The Alaafin

The political system of Oyo was constitutional monarchy. Monarchical system is a system of government in which king or queen rules the state. The Oyo monarchy was essentially based on the system of check and balances. At the head of the Oyo monarchy was the Alaafin who was semi-divine king. Alaafin was a paramount but not an absolute ruler. Because of his direct lineage from Oranmiyan, he was the head of all the Yoruba kings. The office of Alaafin was hereditary. Candidates were first nominated from the royal family before suitable one was elected the king. Elaborate rituals and ceremonies preceded the coronation of Alafin. Having been crowned, the king was a different personality. He was kept secluded in his palace. He was not to walk the street during the day except on a special day. He was also forbidden to eat in the public. In addition, his public appearances were reduced to three times in a year i.e. the three great festivals, the Ifa festival, the Orun and the Bere. The Alafin ruled with the consultation of his senior chiefs, the Oyo Mesi. When an Alaafin died, he was not literally declared died, but euphemistically passed away, kicked the bucket or gave up the ghost (Oba wo Aja or Oba wo Bara).

The Oyo Mesi

The Oyo Mesi were the first class noble men and chiefs. They included in order of seniority:  the Osorun; Agbakin; Samu; Alapini; Laguna; Akiniku and Asipa.

The Oyo Mesi was headed by Basorun whose title is equivalent to the modern day prime minister. He was a very powerful person next in authority to the king. Where the Alaafin was weak, the Basorun might be more powerful. Historically, there were cases of Basoruns who were far more powerful than the king himself. Perhaps, the most tyrannical Basorun in the history of Oyo Empire was the one called Basorun Gaha. So powerful was Basorun Gaha that he requested Alaafins to prostrate for him as homage. He was also notorious for putting to death four of the five of the Alafins he enthroned. The four Alaafins were either frustrated to commit suicide or beheaded by Basorun Gaha. It was the reign of  Alaafin Abiodun Adegoolu that the tyranny of this despotic Gaha was put to halt. The comely and easy going Abiodun enthroned by Gaha was first reduced to a mere puppet. This was followed by the cold murder of the only daughter of Abiodun, Agbonyin, by Basorun Gaha. The clever Abiodun fled the country to return with his loyal warlords who overwhelmed the arrogant forces of Gaha. He was burnt alive. Up till today, it is customary among the Yoruba to use Gaha as example for any arrogant wicked or despotic person. This has been composed into a proverb: Bi o laya kio sika, bi o ba ran ti iku Gaha ki o so otito. Meaning, if you have courage to be cruel, learn from Gaha’s death and be true.

The responsibility of the Oyo Mesi was to discuss and decide the affairs of the state. They made laws in the name of the king and also ensured the execution of the laws. They represent the voice of the people. The y also checked the arbitrariness of Alaafin. Where Oyo Mesi or Basorun was growing too powerful, it was the responsibility of another institution called the Ogboni to check. The Ogboni was a very powerful society composed of freemen noted for their age, wisdom, religious and political commitment. Their roles were to dispense justice and to act as check on the Oyo Mesi.

Social Development

Marriage and Naming Ceremonies

The Yoruba people were characteristically simple in their ways of life. Their houses built in compounds called agbo ile, consisted of a number of houses belonged to members of the same family. They dressed in loose flowing robes. Men wore vests with sleeves called ewu and trousers called sokoto. Other male dresses included agbada, dandogo, ginike, etc. To cover their head, men wore caps of different kind such as labankada or abeti aja. Women wore two or three wrappers and a headgear. The Yoruba paid a great attention to their beauty and physical appearance. Facial marks were made to beautify and to distinguish various members of Yoruba family. These include abaja, ture, keke, gombo, etc. The staple food of the Yoruba includes yam, corn, cassava, sweet potatoes. These were eaten with vegetable, fish or meat.

            Marriage is very important in Yoruba land. There is room for both monogamy and polygamy. Divorce is strictly uncommon. Widows are allowed to remarry after three months of mourning for their deceased husband. A male child was given name on the 9th day, while the female one got her own on the seventh day. Like wedding ceremony, naming of a child was always accompanied by pompous ceremonies. There were three set of names common among the Yoruba, namely: the Amutorunwa (the name the adapted from the circumstances the child’s birth); the Abiso (the christening name); the Oriki (the cognomen or attributive name). Below are the lists of the Yoruba names:

Amutorunwa

Set of twin:      Taiwo (the first to taste the world) and Kehinde (the second born).

Significantly, there was aura of myth surrounding the persons of twin in Yoruba land. They were regarded as possessed supernatural power which could bring fortune or ill-luck. They were venerated to the point of worship.

Idowu     : any child born after the set of twin either male or female is called Idowu. They were noted for their stubbornness. Hence, the appellation “Esu lehin ibeji” (the devil after the set of twin).

 Ige: a child born with footling presentation.

Ilori: a child born without menstruation.

Ojo or Aina: a child born with the cord twined round his neck.

Ajayi: a child born with face downwards (nicknamed onikanga ajipon).

Oke: a child born with unruptured membrane.

Salako (male), Talabi (female): a child born with the head and body covered with ruptured membrane.

Dada: a child born with the natural dreadlock hair (nicknamed Dada Ogbegun olowo eyo).

Abidemi: a child whose father traveled when the mother born him or her.

Abiona: a child born when the mother was on a journey.

Babarinsa/Mamarinsa: a posthumous child.



Religion

 The pantheon of the Yoruba religion consisted of at least four hundred and one gods and goddesses. Some of these deities were believed to be intercessors between man and Almighty God. The Yoruba people also worshipped awe inspiring objects of nature such as trees, rivers, hills and mountains. Highly revered personalities because of their talents or heroic deeds were also deified. But the Yoruba also believed in God Almighty which they called Eledumare or Olorun. Below are the major gods and goddesses worshipped by the Yoruba:

Egungun (Masquerade)

Like many other African groups, the Yoruba believed in ancestral worship which was symbolized in egungun. The  egungun are believed to be the incarnation of the dead ancestors who visited the living. But in reality, the egungun are human beings who wear masks to veil their appearance and unnatural tones to feign their voices. The high priest of egungun is called the Alagba.  The egungun dress (eku) consisted of a variety of clothes with all shades of colours. Among the Yoruba, the egungun worship was a national religious institution. The annual egungun festival was often greeted with grand ceremonies. On the eve of egugun festival, a vigil termed ikunle was always observed. It was the occasion when sacrifices and prayer for posterity and protection were offered to the departed souls. Bean cakes (Olele), blood of fowls and animals were major offers of sacrifices.

For at least seven days, the egungun danced round the town to entertain and pray for the people. While entertaining the people, egungun also performed mocked dramas that depicted the conditions of the state. When an Oba was despotic, an egungun could satirically portray this in drama. The egungun were also the executors of major criminals in the state. It is taboo and forbidden in Yoruba land to unmask egungun.

Oro

Oro god is an highly revered deity among the Yoruba. It is mystery is concealed among the male folk. With the aid of flat sticks or iron strung to a long pole, Oro produces a frightening sound that sends shrill down the spine of people. Oro festival is observed for seven days every year. During this period women are not permitted to go out as they were forbidden to see Oro. Hence, the proverb, bi obinrin ba fojudi oro, oro agbe ( if women disrespect Oro, they will be punished). Of the Oyo people, the people of Iseyin and Jabata were noted for Oro worship. Oro worship is also popular among the Yoruba particularly the egba and the Ijebu.

Ifa

The origin of Ifa divination into Oyo was shrouded in controversy but it is very clear that the knowledge of Ifa divination was not indigenous to the Oyo people. Traditions speak of one Setilu, a native of Nupe, who was born blind. Although blind, Setilu possessed the extraordinary power of divination. At the age of 5, Setilu struck the awe of his parents by foretelling which visitors would visit them.  He therefore fully embarked on the practice of sorcery and medicine, famous from and prospered by it. The practice of Ifa divination took Setilu far and wide. From his native home Nupe, he crossed river Niger to practice in Benin. He migrated to Owo and later to Ado. It was from the Ado land that the practice of Ifa divination reached Oyo.

            Another tradition claims that Ifa divination was introduced into Oyo during the reign of Alaafin Onigbogi. King Onigbogi was the son of Oba Oluaso through Arugba-ifa an Ota woman. Arugba-ifa who had left Oyo after demise of her husband returned when she heard that her son, Onigbogi became the new Alaafin. She demanded from her son that Ifa cult be introduced into Oyo. This was rejected by the Oyo people on the ground that they could not worship palm nut although they were prepared to pacify Ifa with whatever sacrifice was demanded. Because the people of Oyo rejected her god, Arugba-ifa left Oyo in frustration weeping and wailing. Her migration into Ado region compensated her frustration. Not only did Ado people receive Arugba-ifa and her god, they were highly venerated. She initiated the Alado and his people into Ifa mystery. Thus, the Oyo people were later initiated into Ifa cult by the Ado people.

Ifa god is a consulting oracle in Yorubaland. Ifa priests make use of palm nuts or ivory balls as the objects of the future. They also make sacrifice on behalf of their clients to propitiate appropriate god. To become an Ifa priest, it requires a determined study of different chapters of Ifa known as Odu. Each Odu contains fabulous story heroic deeds of people, animals or important element. While recounting the Ifa chant, the priest hits on a phrase that is directly related with what the client brought before him.



Ogun

Ogun, the god of war is highly revered by the Yoruba. It is also nicknamed the god iron or the patron of the blacksmiths. Hence, anything that has to do with iron weapons or object is associated with Ogun. Ogun is represented with iron or piece of granite stone placed under the silk tree. The worship of Ogun was popular among farmers and hunters whose main tools were derived from iron.

Esu or Elegbara

Esu is perhaps the most popular god in the pantheon of the Yoruba. This is probably because of its role as messenger among other gods. It is represented by rough lateritic stone. Esu received all but one object of sacrifice, the Adi. Giving Adi to esu means one wants to invoke its wrath. People do this when they seek vengeance on their enemy.

Osun

Osun is a river goddess worshipped annually by the Yoruba. Historically, Osun was the most beautiful wife of Alaafin Sango. She is the goddess of fertility and harvest.

Islam

The Yoruba were not entirely pagans. Some form of Islamization had existed in the Yorubaland before eighteenth century. This was made possible by commercial transactions between the Yoruba and the Muslims traders from the north. These muslim traders were the Hausa, the Fulani and the Arab. Islam also gained entrance into yorubaland through force of arms. The incursion and seizure of Ilorin, a major Oyo province, by the Fulani Jihadists in the nineteenth century marked an important stage in the introduction of Islam into Yorubaland. Before the close of nineteenth century, a number of Yoruba had already embraced Islamic religion. Thus, muslim mosque became a common sight in many Yoruba markets.

Islamic religion is a religion of the follower of Muhammed,, an unlettered Arab camel rider who received revelations that cover political, social and religious principles.  Islamic religion was founded on five pillars:

  1. Shahaada- belief in the oneness of Allah (God)
  2. Solat- compulsory prayer (five times daily)
  3. Zakat- compulsory alms offering
  4. Zaom Rammadan- compulsory fasting in the month of Ramadan
  5. Hajji- pilgrimage to the holy places, Mecca and Medina

The muslims are expected to adhere religiously to all the commandments that are written in their holy book, Quran. A body of law called sharia and the practice of Muhammad, called Sunnah also guide the behaviours of muslims.

Christianity

Christianity was another religion that was introduced into yorubaland by the foreigners. Christianity is the religion of the followers of Jesus Christ. Christianity as a religion emerged among the Jews after the death of Jesus Christ. Through persecution, perseverance, martyr and missionary activities, Christianity spread to different parts of the world. Like Islam, Christians also believe in the oneness of God but also firmly argue that Jesus is His son. The great work of miracle performed by the Christians also won people’s heart.

Christianity was introduced by the Christian Missionary Society into Abeokuta via Badagry in 1843. From Abeokuta it spread to Oyo, Ogbomosho, Ife, Ilesha, Ekiti, and Ijebu. The religion was introduced at a period when Yorubaland was boiling with civil war, hence, the slow spread of Christianity. The advent of Christianity in yorubaland was very significant for a number of reasons. First, the Christian missionary through diplomacy helped end the raging Yoruba civil war. Second, they contributed to the eradication of slave trade in Yorubaland. The missionary also brought the art of writing into Yorubaland, hence the building of schools. The first printing press and newspaper were also introduced by the Christian missionaries. 



Economy

The economic history of Oyo Empire cannot be treated in isolation of that of her neighbours. The political and economic vestige of Oyo empire covered the whole kingdoms of Oyo, Egba and Egbado. The tributary parts of Nupe, Borgu to the north, the large kingdom of Dahomey in the west and the Popo in the south formed the bulk of economic artery of Oyo Empire. The economic relation of Oyo and other Yoruba states of Ijebu, Ijesa, Ife, Owu, Ondo, Ekiti and Binin was very vibrant.

            At least two factors placed Oyo Empire at good advantages. First, the Yoruba language became lingua franca for both the Yoruba proper and their neighbors. Thus, Yoruba language was adopted as the language of transaction. Another significant factor was that Oyo Empire was the part of large economic area where uniform currency in the form of cowry shells was used. The avalaibilty of uniform currency made transaction very easy for both the Yoruba proper and their neighbours. By 17th  century, cowry currency had became popular among the Yoruba speaking people. Although the system of counting varied, cowry currency afforded the users the uni-denominational benefit. Cowries were counted in multiple of tens, hundred and thousands.

            The economy of Oyo empire was further boosted by highly organized complex of markets. These markets were visited by both the Yoruba speaking and non-Yoruba speaking peoples. There were two main market systems in the Yoruba economic system. These were the daily and the periodic markets. Every Oyo town or village at least had one market located at the centre of the town, usually infront of the Oloja or Baale’s house. Where the town was very large, ruled by king and chiefs, the number of the markets was likely to be more than one. The practice was that each chief organised a market infront of his compound. These markets were either morning or evening markets. Markets were orderly arranged in tents, stalls, and quarters. Each quarter was peculiar for a particular kind of merchandise. Each market was surrounded and decorated by trees. These trees served as shades for the traders and travelers. Usually present was a small square that formed the epicenter of major roads that led to the markets. The market square besides being the major entrance into the town was also used as town square where important meetings were held. Sold in the daily markets were essential articles to meet domestic needs. These articles included fruits, such as oranges, banana, lime; crop produces such as yam, oil palm, pepper, raw cotton, vegetables, mats, baskets etc.

            The second form of markets was the periodic markets. These were feeder markets to the daily markets. They were organized and held at fixed intervals, say four, eight or sixteen days. The periodic markets included the border markets. These markets facilitated smooth economic exchange among all the Yoruba kingdoms and their neibours. The famous market towns in Yoruba land included Apomu. Apomu though an Ife town was located in the boundary shared by Oyo, Owu, Ife and Ijebu. Osogbo was another market town. Osogbo though an Ijesa town was located at the common boundary of Ife, Ibomina, Ijesa and Oyo. Other market towns included Akure, in Ondo kingdom and Okeluse in Ekiti.

            Significantly, market was not only the rendezvous for exchanging of goods and services, it was also the place where ideas of new civilization and technology were diffused. Yoruba were also noted for long distance trade. They acted as middlemen between the Hausa/Fulani in the North and the Edo, the Igbo in the East. The location of Oyo on the major southern caravan routes enabled them to participate fruitfully in the trans-Sahara trade. In the trans-Atlantic trade, the Yoruba also served as the middlemen between the Hausa to the North and the Benin in the south.  These were made possible by two major factors, the availability of trade routes and security.

            Importantly, the availability of major commercial routes was also contributing factor to the economic growth of Oyo Empire. There were overland routes and waterways. The waterways included Rivers Niger, Qeme, Opara, Yewa, Ogun, Osun, Owena, Oluwa and Oba. Overland routes were of more importance than waterways in several reasons. In the first instance, waterways were dangerous for those who could not swim. Water routes were also limited to the areas the rivers passed through. Overland routes that criss-crossed the Oyo Empire included the northern routes that linked the Old Oyo Borgu, Nupe and Hausa communities. The eastern routes linked the Old Oyo to Ila-Ilesa-Akure-Owo-Benin.

           

The basic occupations of the Yoruba include agriculture, commerce, smithery, weaving and carving.

Agriculture

Agriculture was the principal of occupation of the Yoruba. Both male and female engaged in agriculture. Even, people who engaged in other profession were also involved in farming. This included the domestication of crops and rearing of animals. Simple farm tools such as cutlass, hoes, and axe were used. Cereal crops such as corn and beans, groundnuts, yam, cassava, cocoa, kola nuts (kola acumunata) and cotton. Mixed farming was very popular among the Yoruba. Animals such as goats, sheep and fowls were reared side by side with crop production. Crop rotation, mixed cropping and land fallowing were practice to maintain the fertility of land.



In addition, tree crops such as oil palm (elaeis cuineendiis) and the kola nitida, cocoa and cotton were also planted in Oyo Empire. The production in oil palm in large quantity was not unconnected with the legal abolition of slave trade and introduction of the legitimate trade in 1807 by the British. Industrial revolution that swept Europe in the 18th century was perhaps another factor that accelerated the demand for raw materials from Africa.

            There were at least three ways of securing labour services. The first source of labour was the family. Father, mother and children pool their labour together to work in the farm. Where the family was organized on the extended basis, there would be enough hands to work the farm. Another source of labour was Abese or cooperative work. Here, services of friends or other family were sought. These were paid by offering services in return. Before the abolition of slavery and slave trade, slaves were also used to work the farm by the wealthy people. Significantly, slaves were treated as part of the family. They were sometimes allowed to raise their own family. In fact, in some cases slaves were entrusted with highly sensitive responsibility such as security. Capital was accrued through family donation, community pooling (esusu) or borrowing. Traditionally, all land belonged to the king who held it in trusts for the community. Land was not for sale but could be granted to the foreigner to farm without the transfer of the real ownership. The principle of inheritance governed the land system. Hence, land was passed from father to son. Whereas the grantee of the land was entitled to fruits of his labour, he was by law not granted the right to harvest the cash crops (such as cocoa, coffee, kola nuts etc.) on the piece of land granted.   

Other factors that contributed to economy growth of Oyo Empire were the existence of various networks of trade routes and security. 

Oyo Empire and Colonial Rule

The socio-political and economic stability of Oyo was aided by the complete reorganization of the army. An important institution, the Eso, or society of war chiefs, was charged with the defense of the city. The Eso was headed by Are Onakakanfo. Members of Eso were appointed based on their military prowess. By the 17th century, Oyo began to exert its military authority on its neighbours by inflicting crushing defeats on the Bariba and the Tapas (Nupe) who had constituted threat to the existence of Oyo. In its imperial mission, Oyo pushed its frontiers as far as Porto Novo. It imposed its suzerainty on the Egbado, the Egba, the ketu, the Weme and the Ajase on the Coast. The Fon kingdom of Ghana also felt the might of the Oyo army. Borgu (bariba) and the Nupe were reduced to tributary. Colonial representative were sent to these conquered areas as governors and to collect taxes and tributes.

Periods of Wars and Revolution

 Following the peaceful reign of King Abiodun was the period of anarchy, revolution and war. King Abiodun lived to a good old age but was poisoned by his heir, the crown prince Adesina. Prince Adesina was a weak and extravagant son of King Abiodun. Adesina’s weakness was worsened by his inpatient and inability to resist flattery from his followers.  The assassination of king Abiodun thus created a big vacuum in the administration of Oyo as there was nobody to hold vast empire together. Several states and towns that were tributary to Oyo began to assert their independence. Not only did the Oyo lose her tributary provinces in Bariba, Tapa, Popo and Dahomeyean region, it also faced the problem of internal cohesion. While struggling with internal disintegration and rebellion from the tributaries, Oyo had to contend with another problem, the Fulani Jihadists from the North   were already making incursion into the remaining part of Oyo Empire.

            What then were the causes of the anarchy and revolutions? At least five factors were responsible for the reign of the chaos in Oyo Empire. Perhaps the first cause of the chaos was the vengeance mission by the potentates in Oyo who bent on eliminating their enemies. The attempt by the new king, Alaafin Aole, who sought revenge of the past wrongs against him, marked the beginning of internal disintegration in Oyo. For instance, at his ascension of the throne, King Aole sent an expedition to destroy Apomu which ruler, Bale of Apomu had had him flogged publicly  for bartering his loyal friend (prince’s friend) for merchandise, an offence which was punishable by death at the time. The poor Bale fled his town to seek refuge in Ife. In order to save his town and people from being destroyed, Bale of Apomu committed suiceide and his head was sent to Alaafin of Oyo. The consequence was that the new king not only portrayed himself as a tyrant, but also created more enemies against his person.

            Another factor was the mutual suspicion between the king and the chiefs. For instance, King Aole saw the restless Afonja, the new Kakanfo (war field marshall) and the ruler of Ilorin province not only as his enemy but also a nightmare that must be got rid of. He secretly planned the assassination of Afonja at the war front. The plan not only failed, it also further exposed king to his enemies. Consequently, the failure of the assassination of Afonja spurred the aggrieved chiefs in Oyo to team up with Afonja against King Aole. The king was sent an empty calabash which means that he was rejected and had to commit suicide. Before committing suicide, King Aole cursed his chiefs and Oyo people for their disloyalty to him.

            The death of King Aole created a big vacuum in the Administration of Oyo. Hence, Afonja and his accomplice not only pillaged the palace, they also declared the independence of their respective provinces. The new king, Adebo, that ascended the throne was mere titular head. The situation in Oyo was so worse that he could not assert his authority. He ruled for just 130 days. The dissension in the capital also weakened the authority of Oyo on its tributaries. The people of Dahomey, Popo and Egba threw off the yoke of Oyo suzerainty. The Tapa and the Bariba saw this as the opportunity to terrorise Oyo. Perhaps the worst calamity to befall Oyo was the incursion of the empire by the Fulani. 

            The coming of the Fulani into the Yoruba land was facilitated by the rebellious Kankanfo Afonja who invited a Fulani Muslim priest named Alimi to Ilorin. Alimi was a highly respected priest. He was pure Fulani by birth. When he was coming, Alimi came with his Hausa slaves. Also invited to aid Afonja in his rebellion against Aalafin was a rich and powerful Yoruba man at Kurwo named Solagberu. The rebellion instigated by Afonja soon found loyalty in Hausa slaves who were before employed in the adjacent towns as rope-makers, cowherds and barbers. They deserted their masters and flocked Ilorin to enjoy freedom under the leadership of Afonja who offered them protection against their former masters. Complimentary to Afonja plot was the similar revolt under Solagberu leadership. Like Afonja, Solagberu offered the Muslims from Gbanda, Kobayi, Agoho, Kuwo and Kobe protection. These people flocked to his quarter named Oke Suna i.e. the quarter of the faithful. Thus, the rebellion of Afonja found accomplice in the Muslim clerics and disgruntled Hausa slaves.

The new Muslim recruits organized themselves in a group or brotherhood called Jama. Hence began the Jihad or religious war which almost devastated the major towns in Yoruba land. Significantly, the assistance given to Alimi and his loyal supporters was no more than subtle way of imposing Islam on the Yoruba land where it had been impregnable. The Jamas started to grow in number, strength and rapacity. They plundered, pillaged and oppressed people. In their marauding manners, the Jama almost reduced their victims to poverty. So menacing was the presence of the Jama that Afonja himself soon sought to get rid of them. Thus, Afonja, not knowing how to handle the overbearing manner of the Jama, threatened to suppress and annihilate them. This threat suddenly raised the disaffection and uprising of the Jama against Afonja.

Led by Alimi, the Jama besieged Afonja in his quarter. Despite his characteristic bravery, Afonja was overwhelmed by the Jama. Charged with many darts, arrows and spears, Afonja fell in the midst of his treacherous allies. Thus, Ilorin passed into the hands of the Fulani. Although Alimi and his family took over the ruling of Ilorin, Afonja family was conciliated and offered protection.

Many attempts were made to liberate Ilorin from the tutelage of the Fulani. In order to have a co-ordinate force, Toyeje, the Bale of Ogbomoso and commander of the right wing of late Afonja, was promoted to the post of  Kakanfo. The first battle fought by combined Yoruba forces with the Fulani army took place in Ogele. Aided by Solagberu forces from Oke Suna, the Fulani army ruthless routed the Yoruba army. This battle led to the destruction of the Yoruba towns of Ibolo province. The second attempt to liberate Ilorin from the Fulani hold was not successful either. The battle was named the Mugbamugba war to reflect the condition of dearth of food faced by the soldiers. It was related that because every where was desolate and no farm to forage, the soldiers had to depend on Igba, the locust fruit for their survival. The Yoruba made an alliance with Mojia, the king of Rabbah. But this proved to be ineffective as the Fulani roundly defeated the Yoruba army and their allies.

Significantly, the loss of the Yoruba in the war against the Fulani was not unconnected with the superiority of the latter army. The Fulani had a well organized army supported with strong cavalry. The cavalry was put to advantageous use against the Yoruba who fled in the face of their attackers. Another factor that militated against the victory of the Yoruba was the mutual jealous and rivalry among the Yoruba leaders at the time. This not only prevented the possibility of united front but also led to open war and hostile alliance. For instance, the mutual rivalry between Toyeje, the Kakanfo and Adegun, the Onikoyi spurred the former to seek the alliance of other powerful Yoruba commanders.

Consequently, the Oyo metropolis came under the fear of dangerous attacks its disloyal chiefs and the Fulani Jihadists. Coupled with this was the inferno that engulfed the Alaafin palace. This inferno destroyed most of the treasures in the palace. All efforts to control the unfortunate calamity were futile. It was in these double disasters that the king died.

The accession of a new Alaafin, king Oluewu coincided with the reign of Shitta one of the sons of Alimi of Ilorin. Determined to assert his over lordship, Shitta asked Oluewu to come to Ilorin to pay him homage as his vassal. This, Oluewu was reluctant to do as this was not only humiliation on the office of Alaafin but also the entire Yoruba people. Persuaded by his chiefs to comply in order to save the capital of the Fulani invasion, Oluewu went to Ilorin to perform what he considered as shame and disgrace. Although Shitta received him with every mark of honour, Oluewu was stripped of his royal sovereignty. Not only did Shitta seized the royal drum in which the presence of Alaafin was announced, he also ordered his warlike slave, Jimba, to sack Oyo metropolis. This was done immediately. Besides the looting of the palace from where every valuable item was carted away, the marauders also menaced the people of Oyo.

The second invitation of Oluewu by Shitta was refused. Again Oyo Chiefs particularly Prince Atiba of Ago Oja persuaded the humiliated king to go to Iloring. The refusal of Oluewu to honour his invitation infuriated Shitta. Hence, an army with the Chief of Ogodo, Lanloke at the head was sent against Oyo. The Ilorin  forces menaced the suburbs and the city of Oyo. To protect the city, Alaafin speedily invited Baribas to his aid. The two enemies of the king among the chiefs were first dealt with. Asipa was killed by the shower of the Bariba army. Basorun on the other hands was put to death by his people to avoid disgrace of the family. The Ilorin forces that were marching on Oyo were halted on the way by heavy natural calamity.  A thunderous lightening struck a considerable number of the Ilorin army and instilled panic fear in their camp. The causes of the lightening are not known. But it would appear that the unfortunate soldiers attracted lightening through their glistering swords.

Having realized the danger in facing the whole Oyo Empire at once, Shitta adopted two major strategies. First he secured the alliance of some powerful and subtle enemies of Alaafin. These included Onikoyi, Elebu and Prince Atiba of Ago Oja. The second strategy was to subjugate all the vassal states under Oyo. The first town attacked by the Ilorin army was Gbodo. A siege was laid on Gbodo by the Ilorin. This was quickly repulsed by the combined forces of Oyo and the Baribas. With the help of heroic Eleduwe and his valiant Bariba archers, the Oyo not only raised the siege but also hotly pursued their enemies into river Ogun. Among the fallen generals in the Ilorin forces was Elebu of Ago Oja who was drowned in the river. Brave as he was, Prince Atiba fled for his live at the approach of Oyo army. In order to put a final solution to the hostility from Ilorin, king Oluewu sought the co-operation of his subjects. Among the Yoruba generals that responded to Alaafin’s invitation were Kurumi of Ijaye, the Aseyin of Iseyin, the Okere of Saki, Sabigana of Igana and Atiba of Ago Oja. This was supported by Eleduwe forces from Bariba. Alarmed by the serious preparation of the Oyo army, Shitta, the Emir of Ilorin sought the military aid from his overlord, the Sultan of Sokoto. A decisive battle was fought at Otefan. Initially, the Oyo and their Bariba ally had inflicted crushing defeat on the Ilorin army. The victory was pursued too far. The victorious Oyo army chased the Ilorin forces, but was soon repulsed by the Ilorin cavalry.  Heavy loss was recorded on both sides.

A great council of war was summoned about 1830 by Alaafin Oluewu. All important Yoruba leaders came together for about six months to form strategy for the next expedition against the Fulani in Ilorin. Among the Yoruba warrior that responded were: Atiba of Ago Oja, Oluyole of Ibadan, Kurumi of Ijaye, Ayo of Abemo, Timi of Ede and several Egba warriors. The fateful battle known as “Eleduwe war” was fought in December 1930. Although overwhelmed by the Ilorin forces, the Oyo army fought with decided bravery. The heroic display of Eleduwe was unparalleled. The renegade chiefs, Atiba of Ago and Bamgbaiye of Ede deserted the Oyo in the heat of the battle. Eleduwe died lost his life in this battle. Even Alaafin Oluewu who initially escaped at the battle front was overtaken by the Ilorin cavalry. He was coldly murdered by the Fulani.

There are at least two factors that led to the failure of Eleduwe war. First, the Bariba army that came to aid the Oyo against the Fulani grew too powerful in Oyo. These soldiers became marauders devouring cattle and goats of Oyo people. So notorious were the Bariba soldiers that they soon earned the appellation of “Arun Erun or Ikoriko” meaning cattle devourers or wolves. Thus, this unbecoming behaviour of the Bariba soldiers made the Oyo lose confidence in them. The Oyo people also feared that if not checked the, Bariba could dominate them. Despite the overbearing attitude of the Bariba, the people of Oyo were unable to offer serious resistance as the latter was treated as sacred cow by the Alaafin. This factor also weakened the relationship between the Bariba and their hosts, the Oyo.

The internal feud within the polity of Oyo was another factor. There existed among the Oyo chiefs, mutual jealous and bickering. While the Oyo Chiefs haboured  King Eleduwe of Bariba for helping Oluewu, they also feared the domination of Oyo over their independent territories should Oyo regain its sovereignty. Thus, the Oyo chiefs conspired against the Bariba king, Eleduwe and Alaafin Oluewu and gave support to the Ilorin army. With this at background, it was impossible for the Oyo army to give a common front to their common enemies.

The consequences of the defeat of Oyo army by the Fulani forces were overwhelming. Coupled with this was the attack on the capital itself, Oyo Katunga by Lanloke supported by the Fulani forces. Although Lanloke invasion was repulsed, the people of Oyo were too frightening to risk staying in the city. Having received the news of the crushing defeat of the combine forces of Oyo and the Bariba, the inhabitants of Oyo fled the city to obtain protection from the neighbouring towns. Some sought refuge in kishi while others fled to Ighboho. There were even Oyo refugees in Ilorin. Hence, the capital of the most enduring empire in Yoruba land was deserted.



Migration and Settlement Patterns in Yorubaland after the Fall of the Old Oyo Empire

 The post-Eleduwe war that brought the final blow on the old Oyo Empire was marked by waves of internecine war that swept across the whole Yoruba country. Besides the desertion of the Oyo Katunga, many other towns that were under the suzerain of the Oyo Empire were either destroyed by the marauders or deserted for the fear of invasion. One of these deserted towns was Esiele. Esiele was a few kilometer to Ikoyi. It became the victim of power show as a result of assistance given Ojo, one of the aspirants vying for the posts of Onikoyi. Having obtained the title of Onikoyi from Alaafin Amodo, Ojo promised his allegiance to the Alaafin. But he was intercepted on his way back home by the avowed enemy of the Alaafin and ally of the Fulani of Ilorin, Edun of Gbogun who was the then Kakanfo. Edun also sought equal alliance with Ojo who reluctantly gave flimsy support. Before his arrival at Esiele, his rival at home that was also aspirant, Siyanbola and his followers had deserted the town. Not finding Ikoyi unsaved, Ojo sought refuge in Esiele. But Siyanbola did not relent in his effort to crush his rival, Ojo. With the aid of the Fulani army, Siyanbola besieged Esiele, slain Ojo while Dado and Kurumi the Balogun of Esiele deserted the town. Whereas Ikoyi was re-peopled and Esiele was not immediately deserted, the dread of pillaging and insecurity which the clash between the rulers of the two neighbouring towns, Edun of Gbogun and Dada of Adeyi, could result led to the desolate of Esiele, although the town was re-peopled after the war.

Gbogun which posed great threat to the surrounding town soon fell in the hands of the Fulani invaders. It happened that the Emir of Ilorin Abdulsalami demanded that Edun of Gbogun, the kakanfo, should pay allegiance to him. The refusal of the Kakanfo to obey his order led to the declaration of war between Ilorin and Edun. Onikoyi who had become the vassal of Ilorin after the capitulation of Oyo, was given stern warning by the Kakanfo to desert his town or prepare for war. Not only was Ikoyi deserted, the people of Esiele under Fasola who saw the threat also deserted their town. In the ensued battle, although Kakanfo army bravely defended their city, Gbogun was notwithstanding crushingly defeated. Kakanfo who escaped to Gbodo to seek refuge met with his death as the people of Gbodo decided to slay him to save their city from the Fulani invasion.

Although the fall of old Oyo brought about the emergence of new towns, it also led to the appearance of some marauders who not only pillaged the Yoruba country but also unleashed terror on people. These marauders were the war thirsty soldiers who had either deserted their camps or lost their leaders. So menacing was their activities that they sometimes teamed up and attacked the peaceful towns under flimsy pretense. Initially, their activities were limited to pillaging the weak towns, when they became war-weary, they settled in some of these towns and transformed them into large cities they are known today.

At invitation of Awujale of Ijebu the war thirsty soldiers (some of whom independent mercenary while others moved in bands) made the Ipara a town of Ijebu Remo their new base. Under the pretext of that the Egba were aiding the Owu which was jointly destroyed by the Ife, Ijebu and the Oyo allied army, the Egba towns were also marked for destruction. Whereas the soldiers were already disbanded and some of them already migrating, they soon found new opportunity of displaying their valour at Oorun, a Gbagura town Although the reason for the war is not very clear, it has been suggested that the people of Oorun refused the allied army the passage through their territories. . Another excuse for war was probably the feuds between the Idomapa and its Gbagura neighbour in which the allied army was invited. Whatever the cause of the battle, serious battles were fought between the Gbagura and the allied army. The allied army included the Ijebu, the Ife and the Oyo refugees. The Ife army was led by Maye, while the Ijebu were led by Kalejaiye. The Oyo army was led by Oluyedun.

After the crushing defeat of Oorun, the major Gbagura town, the allied army embarked on pillaging and destruction of the Gbagura towns. Seen the advancing terror, the Gbagura people deserted their towns before the arrival of the conquerors. The allied soldiers later settled at Ibadan and made it their war camp. The deserted towns included Ibadan, Oje, Ofa, Ikerekuwere, Ora, Kossi-kosi and Ijaiye-maja. The refugees from the Egba Agura, Egba Agbesyin and Egba Oke Ona came together under the leadership of Sodeke an able and warlike leader, and settled at Abeokuta, a farm village owned by an Itoko man. The Ebga new home was strategic for few reasons. First, the place provided the refugees the expected protection as the rocks surrounding the place made invasion an Herculean task for the enemy. Second, the area was located on major trade route between the people in the coast and the forested region. In fact, the location of this site became a decisive factor that determined the economic relations of the Egba and their neighbours.

Significantly, not all Oyo refugees rove about to plunder their neighbours, there were those who sought peaceful protection from unaffected towns. Some Oyo refugees sought protection in Ife towns of Moro, Edunabon, Yakoyo, Ipetumodu, Waro, Apomu and Ikire. The invasion of the aforementioned Ife towns by the Ilorin army forced the Oyo refugees to settle in different quarters in Ile-Ife. The arrival of the Oyo in Ile-Ife coincided with the reign of Ooni Akinmoyero. The Oyo refugees at Ife were employed to do menial jobs such as farm labour. Uneasy feeling and hostility soon developed between the hosts and the visitors. This hostility has been attributed to jealousy and suspicion on the part of the Ife. Although this argument has been overemphasized by many authors, evidently, the disaffection between the Ife and the Oyo refugees could not be divorced from competition for the limited resources available in the region.

The aggression of the Ife people was transferred to their rulers who favored the Oyo refugees. It is reported that most of Ooni that reigned at the time of that crisis were murdered by their disgruntled subjects. Ooni Gbanlare and Winmolaje who were favourable disposed to the Oyo refugees were coldly murdered. Even Ooni Adegunle who obtained the oath from the Ife people not only faced civil war but was later poisoned by his people. But it should be noted that, having realized the danger facing the refugees, Ooni Adegunle resettled the Oyo refugees in a new place called Modakeke. He also conferred on the leading Oyo chief, the title of Ogunsuwa. Modakeke is not a great distance from Ile-Ife. In fact, it was just outside the Ife wall. The new settlement was built in circular form with trees as shield. As the population swelled, Modakeke grew in importance. But it should be noted that the new settlers despite their military capability, were vassal to Ile-Ife. After the death of Ooni Adegunle, the Ife soon found pretext to provoke the Oyo refugees. Twice, the Ife besieged Modakeke but were roundly defeated. In fact, the second siege of Modakeke by Ife was the worst as the former not only captured some of the invaders, they were even tempted to sell the latter into slavery. Besides, the Ife people dreaded the Modakeke, deserted their towns. For the intervention of Chief Ogunmola of Ibadan who brokered peace with the Modakeke, the Ife returned home.

Another consequence of the fall of Old Oyo Empire was the emergence of Ibadan which hitherto had been an Egba village into the largest and the most powerful city in Yorubaland. Following the fall of Oorun and Gbagura towns, the disbanded soldiers of Ijebu, Ife and Oyo settled at Ibadan, the only town remained undestroyed. Of the three groups, the Ife under the leadership of Maye, were perhaps the most powerful. The Oyo perhaps because of misfortune they suffered after the fall of their capital were treated as the third class citizens by the Ife. Maye the Ife leader was acknowledged by all as the leader and every serious case was referred to him. In the drunkenness of power, Maye grew too powerful and overearing. Different stories were related of his haughtiness and arrogance. In a land dispute between an Oyo man and Owu man, Maye was reported to have beheaded the Oyo man without investigating the issue. This incidence instigated the Oyo to revolt against the leadership of Maye. Maye was expelled from Ibadan. Despite the efforts of the Oyo to pacify Maye, he refused to accept their plea. Rather the aggrieved warlord went to Erumu where the people of Owu vowed to avenge his wrong. After about one year of preparation and predatory of Ibadan towns, the people of Owu formed allegiance with the Egba and Ife towns of Apomu, Ikire and Ipetumodu. An overwhelming number of army was mobilized against the Ibadan. Having seen the imminent danger posed by the allied army, the Ibadan also formed alliance with the Ijaye under the leadership of Kurumi. This later resulted in one of the most memorable war in Yoruba history, the Gbanamu war.

In the war that ensued, Idomapa was staged as the rendezvous for the battles. The Ibadan and the Ijaye forces heroically repulsed the combined forces of the Owu and their allies. The battle was christened “Gbanamu” literally means grasping fire. The allied forces made use of barrel but the Ibadan army bravely assailed their enemies by grasping their gun barrel. A crushing defeat was inflicted on the allied forces while Maye was captured at the war front. Traditionally, a war-chief must not be coldly murdered in Yorubaland. This was the principle of war of the day. An arrangement was made with common soldier who beheaded Maye. The Ibadan forces did not stop there. Although the Ibadan forces besieged Erumu, they could only bring the doomed town through famine.  Erumu was taken while the three kings of Erumu, Idomapa and Owu caught in the town were slain. Although the death of Olowu was carefully arranged because of his position as the first class Oba of Yorubaland, he was nonetheless killed for his atrocity. Thus, the Oyo emerged the master of the region.

Although Ibadan had been the military camp, after the Erumu war, the place became settlement proper. Unlike other Yoruba towns where crown king or Baale ruled, Ibadan was organized a republican state. Leadership was conferred on Oluyedun who, though was the son of the late Afonja of Ilorin, was the oldest general among the Ibadan warrior. Besides, the hitherto pillaging and rapine behaviour of the Ibadan settlers was put to rest as the people resorted to peaceful tilling of the ground and rearing of animals.

The Emergence of the New Oyo (Oyo Ago)

After the unsuccessful repulsion of the Ilorin forces during the Eleduwe war, the people of Oyo Katunga retreated into the hinterland particularly the forest region. One the Old Oyo vassalage, Ago Oja became an important place in the history of Oyo. In the first instance, Prince Atiba who was to become the new Alaafin had been residing in this town since his youth. In fact, he rose to the position of fame and prominence in Ago. Ago was said to have been founded by Chief Oja, who died at the Kanla war, and was located in the Epo district. Ago also housed a number of Oyo refugees from the capital. The ascendancy of Ago to prominence was not unconnected with the aspiration of Prince Atiba to become the new Alaafin. Thus, the seat of power shifted from the ancient capital to Ago. Even the coronation of Prince Atiba took place in Ago. Significantly, it is true that Prince Atiba was very desperate to become the new Alaafin as this was demonstrated in his secrete alliance with the Fulani against the combined Yoruba forces, the intention of Atiba to permanently move the capital of Oyo to Ago could also be attributed to the state of insecurity of the ancient capital. Ago was smaller than the ancient capital and the population was also too lean. Different efforts were made to increase the new capital both in population and size. Towns and villages ten to twenty miles of Ago were absorbed and their population transported to the new capital. These included Akeitan,  Ajagba Seke, Apapra, Idode,, Gudugbu, Jabata, Ojomgbodu, Aguwo, Opapa and Ijoga.

Besides the old titles, new titles were conferred on the people. Major titles such as military titles were conferred on the most powerful generals of the day. The title of Basorun was conferred on Oluyole of Ibadan. The title of Kakanfo was conferred on Kurumi of Ijaye. These two Generals were charged with the responsibilities of protecting the new capital and entire Yorubaland in the face of war or invasion. The Ibadan forces were charged with the responsibility of protecting the north and north east of Yorubaland. The Ijaye army was in charge of the western provinces.  Both Generals also had hierarchy of chiefs under him. Like the capital, they also had their Balogun, Otun, Osi and so on. Both the Generals also controlled the domestic affairs of his territory without any recourse to the capital. Nominally, both Generals acknowledged the Alaafin as their overlord and were always ready to defend him.

Although the decision to split the empire into three was purely administrative and security reasons, it was also unconnected with the need to maintain balance of power by the new Alaafin. Both Generals were too powerful to control by the Alaafin Atiba, hence the need to use one to check the other. It should also be noted that some old customs were changed in the new capital. For instance, it was legislated that Alaafin should not venture into the war front again as the last Alaafin died in the war front. Thus, the person of Alaafin was confined to the capital. Second, the Basorun could no longer live in the capital as it was before. Although the reason for this has been alleged to be administrative, this was obviously to avert the collision of power between the Alaafin and Basorun. Thus constitutional provision was made to meet the contingencies. This thus completed the reorganization of the new Oyo Empire. But attention was soon shifted into the imperial mission. It would be recalled that, at the commencement of chaos in the ancient capital, all the vassal of Oyo started to reassert their independence. Hence, the Oyo re-imposed her suzerainty on the vassal states.

There were also social reforms in the new Oyo Empire. This wave of changes began in Ibadan. For instance the law of inheritance which hitherto had given brothers primacy to inherit the properties of their immediate elder brothers was changed in favour of the children. Hence, the personal properties of the deceased were to be shared by the children with the eldest son been the protector although, other member of the family, either near or far were also considered in the distribution of the properties. This system was approved by the Alaafin Atiba and was entrenched in the national constitution of the Oyo. Perhaps it was this development that prompted the Alafin to abrogate the tradition of compulsory death of Aremo after the demise of the Alaafin.

The status of slaves was not left unaltered as well. Whereas slaves were treated with disdain before, the people of Ibadan were perhaps the first to have changed this unwholesome behaviour. In Ibadan, slaves were treated as members of households. The culture of selling slaves was put to halt as there was increase need to swell the number of army. Thus, male slaves were employed as soldiers, labours in the farms or guards. They were also given the opportunity of marrying slave women and their children remained in the family of their lords. By reducing the line between the freeborn people and the slaves, the level of loyalty between of the slaves to their masters increased. The female slaves were either included in the harem of their masters or employed as housemaid. They were fairly treated and accorded women respect. Where a slave was trust by his master, his status could be elevated. Hence, there were favorite slaves whose masters entrusted with the position of trust and great responsibility. Such slaves also kept harem of women and lived flamboyantly like their masters.

While the Oyo were reforming their new home, the Fulani bent on reducing the remaining part of the Yoruba country into tributary. The Fulani and the Jamas laid a close siege on Osogbo and a battle ensued between the invaders and the Osogbo army. A large contingent of army under Balogun Oderinlo was sent from Ibadan to raise the siege. Although the Fulani forces with their overwhelming cavalry almost gained victory, the Ibadan forces realign their strategy by attacking the Ilorin camp in the night. A crushing defeat with great casualty was inflicted on the Ilorin army. The Ibadan forces captured many slaves among whom were four Ilorin war-chiefs, Jimba, the head of Emir slaves, one of the sons of Ali, the commander-in-chief of Ilorin, Lateju and Ajikobi. Of the four, the first two were released to return home while the remaining two were put to death, perhaps because they were treacherous Yoruba who allied with the Fulani.

Although victorious, the Oyo refused to consolidate their victory by liberating the ancient capital. Rather, they peacefully retreated into their new homes. Certain reasons could be adduced to this. In the first instance, the ancient Oyo was located in the savannah and was not secured from incessant invasion of the Fulani. Second, the Oyo army retreated perhaps because they dreaded the causality they could suffer in the hands of the Fulani cavalry if they pursued their victory too far. Another reason was probably the protection the Oyo new home which was located in the forest region afforded them. Nevertheless, the battle of Osogbo was decisive in the history of the Yoruba. For one, the Yoruba had established the fact that they could not be easily overrun by the Fulani again.

With the repulsion of the Fulani incursion, the Oyo embarked on systematic consolidation of their gains. But the mutual jealousy and rivalry between the leading Oyo chiefs soon snowballed into open confrontation and thus placed the new capital, Oyo Ago into fresh danger.

The first Ijaye war

            This began with Basorun Oluyole covetous for the post of Alaafin. Although Oluyole was maternally related to the royal family, he was not by birth qualified to be the Alaafin. Oluyole adopted different tactics to court the Kakanfo, Kurumi and alienate Alaafin Atiba, he did not succeed in either.

            In order to provoke war, Basorun Oluyole demanded that Kurumi come to Ibadan to pay him homage. This kurumi refused to do. Another pretext was soon found to provoke war. It happened that  on treacherous Ijaye chief, Asu, the Areagoro of Ladejo, who escaped to Fiditi, sought the military aid of Ibadan against the Ijaye. Basorun Oluyole speedily responded to this request by ordering his soldiers to embark on raiding and kidnapping in Ijaye and Oyo farms. These expeditions failed as the Ijaye forces not only repulsed the Ibadan forces, they also inflicted crushing defeat on them. A formal declaration of war against Ijaye was declared by Inadan. Decisive battles were fought between the two belligerent parties for about two years at a place called Ika, located midway between the two towns. But neither sides gained complete victory.

Several alliances were formed by the two warring parties. The Egba for instance were divided on whose side to support. While Sodeke and Anoba supported Ijaye, Apati was ready to offer assistance to Ibadan. The Oke Ogun districts were also drawn into the war. Division as to whom to support almost caused feud. Basorun Oluyole also sought the military alliance of Ogbomosho and Ilorin. While the former was divided, the latter eagerly offered support to Ibadan as this would provide the Ilorin the most cherished opportunity to get rid one of their its foes in Yorubaland. In addition, with the Ijaye out of way, it assumed that it would be very easy for the Ilorin cavalry to overrun Ibadan and other Yoruba towns. Although Iwo and Ede revolted, Apomu, Ikire and Osogbo declared for Ibadan. As the war camp was swelling with the entrance of new recruits and allied army, the Alaafin of Oyo used his position to arbitrate between the two belligerent parties. The emblem of Sango was sent to both camps dissuade them from war. Because of high esteem the Yoruba nation held Sango, terms of peace were immediately negotiated and the war concluded in armistice. This concluded the war that would have pitted most powerful Yoruba states in desperate engagement.

The Second Ijaye War

After the death of Alaafin Atiba, his Aremo, Prince Adelu succeeded him on the throne. There was a breach of the old tradition in which every Aremo must be put to death when any Alaafin died. This was not unconnected with the fact that Aremo was presumed to have reigned and enjoyed almost the same respect and opportunity like his father. Hence, he was expected to accompany his father in the journey beyond. On this premise, the Are Ona kakanfo, Kurumi, (now very old) refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of Alaafin Adelu. He insisted that Adelu must die with his father.

            Although alleging the strict observation of the old custom, the hautiness of Kurumi was not unconnected with ego and insubordination for someone whose father was his contemporary and comerade. Whereas Alaafin was conciliatory to the Are, the latter sought every means of provoking a war. Some events soon gave way to war.

            At the death of one rich Ijanna lady, Abu, who left neither child nor heirs, her properties which in accordance with custom were reverted to the Alaafin. Perhaps for the fear of the Ijaye whose suzerainty lorded over them, some people of Ijanna requested the Are to take over the properties. When the Alaafin sent an envoys escorted by Ona-Aka and Aremo’s Balogun to bring the treasure, Kurumi, the Are sent a contingent to intercept them. Not only were the treasure seized, some of the envoys were captured as well. Huge ransom was demanded by the Are. Despite the Alaafin’s plea, Kurumi refused to let go of the captives. Ransom was paid but not without bitterness. Thus, hostility and bitterness began between the people of Oyo and Ijaye.

            Having bent on punishing the arrogant and tyrant Are, Alaafin Adelu declared war on Ijaye and demanded the Ibadan army to take the battle field. With the formal declaration of war on Ijaye, the two belligerent camps began to prepare for war. It is significant to note that before the war proper, series of raids were conducted on the territories of both parties. Caravan were waylaid, people were kidnapped in Ijaye farms. Alliances were sought from both powerful and weak neigbours. While the former could provide military aid and reinforcement, the latter were to supply material things such as food. The Ibadan that sought alliances of the Egba and the Ijebu, but  none offered the Ibadan the expected assistance. With the exception of the Ijebu Remo, in fact the Ijebu could not conceal their hatred for Ibadan that they hastily attacked the diplomatic envoy of Ibadan on their way to Ijebuland. The Egba who had already entered diplomatic alliance hitherto, treacherously turned their back on Ibadan. Although divided on whom to support, the Egba considered Ibadan a more formidable enemy which must crushed a all costs. The Ijesa on the other hand saw the period an opportunity to revenge the aid the Ibadangave t  Alaye town against Ilesa. The Emir of Ilorin also declared war on Ibadan which had remained stumbling block to his total subjugation of the Yorubaland.

            It therefore became evident that many states eager to se Ibadan crushed. The reason for this was perhaps the growing influence of Ibadan warriors and their unceasing imperial mission which other towns dreaded. It might also be that the slave raiding and marauding culture of the Ibadan warriors occasioned this combined hostility. Whatever te reason for this enmity, the time was ripe for the Ibadan to prove their mettle. Series of battles were fought between the Ibadan and the Ijaye. With Ogunmola and Ibikunle at the head of the Ibadan army, and Kurumi at the head of Ijaye forces, the two camps engaged in fatal battles. In one of these battles, Kurumi narrowly escaped been captured alive. Thus, the Ijaye quickly retreated into their wall.  A long siege of Ijaye was laid by  the Ibadan army. After several months of siege, the Ijaye hem in by famine. Relive soon came from Oke Ogun to Ijaye. The Ibadan tried to cut off this source of supplies to Ijaye. Thus, a few battles were also fought in Oke Ogun districts to halt the supply. Iwawun and Erin were the notable Oke Ogun towns that supported the Ijaye. Despite the warning issued to these towns, they refused to yield. To protect his source of supply, Kurumi sent a contingent to the area. Te crisis in the Oke Ogun reached climax when Ogunmola himself led a handful of his soldiers to suppress Iwawun.

            At home, Ibadan was menaced by the Ijebu marauders. The Ibadan traders were constantly ambushed on their way to Ijebu Remo markets by the Ijebu people. To subvert the Ijebu raidings, Ajiya Abayomi, Madarikan and Tubosun and a few soldiers were sent as escorts for the caravans. The name of Abayomi, an outstanding warrior, was considered to strike awe in the heart of the Ijebus. This soon proved to be false as the Ijebu mobilized a large body of troops to block the Ibadan passage to Remo. Three blockades were erected on the way to prevent the passage of the Ibadan traders. In the battle that ensued, the Ijebu inflicted serious casualty on the Ibadan soldiers. But for the experience of Ajiya Abayomi who took a handful of his soldiers to attack the Ijebu from the rear, the battle would have been lost by the Ibadan. Thus, the Ijebu were scattered with heavy casualty recorded. With this, the Ibadan secured their route of supply from the Ijebu Remo.

            The appearance of the Egba in the battle front re-invigorated the confidence of the Ijaye. Although seriously warned by the Ijaye neither to camp near nor engaged the Ibadan without provocation, the Egba refused this advice and gallantly marched against Ibadan army. Despite their superiority in gun and ammunition, the Egba were not match for the Ibadan military tactics. In their amateurish strategy, the Egba were roundly crushed. Thousand of egba were slaughtered while thousands were captured as slaves. Most of the Egba and Ijebu captives were murdered in front of their people to show the consequence of diplomatic treachery. With the defeat of the Egba and subjugation of Oke Ogun, all hope to survive the siege was lost for the Ijaye. Lamenting the casualty of the war and loss of all external supports, Kurumi died of heart broken.

            After the death of Kurumi, the Are Onakakanfo, Abogunrin his head slave was chosen as the new leader. He rallied the Ijaye forces to face Ibadan army again. A serious and determined battle was fought on March 16th 1962 by the two belligerent forces. Once again, the Ibadan emerged victorious. Ijaye was captured. While some people including Abogunrin escaped, others were either captured as slaves or killed. Those who escaped soon found refuge in Abeokuta where the Egba allocated them land on which they settled. This was named Ago Ijaye.

            The aftermath of the Ijaye war was neither calm nor without pockets of conflicts. It would appear that though the battle of Ijaye ended with the Ibadan triumph over the allied forces, in reality it was a mere shift of the battle ground. The fact that both belligerent parties refused to disband their army shows that the battles were merely shifted into another region. The remnant of Ijaye were discontented, the Ijebu and Egba humiliated, while the Ibadan were unsatisfied with incomplete victory. The causes of the subsequent battles were no more than the desire to avenge the breach of treaties by the small allies.

            The first victim of this vengeance was Awaye. Awaye was an agricultural and prosperous town within the Ijaye territory. The people of Awaye were peaceful who hardly engage in conflict. Their main offense for which the Ibadan bent on punishing them was that they supplied the Ijaye with provision during the siege. A small army under the leadership of Asipa was sent on punitive expedition against the Awaye. Although heroically defended by able bodied men, the town was brought to submission by famine after a close siege. This siege was halted in October 1862.

            While the Ibadan forces were besieging Awaye, the Egba and the Ijaye refugees were preparing wreck havoc on the Ijebu Remo for providing supplies for the Ibadan during the Ijaye war. After the destruction of Makun, the Egba-Ijaye forces also threatened to deal a severe blow on Ogere, Ode and Ipara. Seen the gathering storm of ahead, the Remo sent for military aid from Ibadan.  The Ibadan responded speedily. Although they were able to conquer Ogere and Ipara with lightening speed, the Ibadan forces soon found their equal in the Egba-Ijaye-Ijebu forces at the battle of Iperu. Certain reasons have been suggested for this. Iperu, the seat of battle was not an agriculture country where food supply could be obtained for the Ibadan forces that were fighting long distance from home. Hence, there was problem of food and water supply. The Egba could also withstand Ibadan forces at Iperu because of their accessibility to much superior breach-loading guns and rifles. It was also suggested that the Egba engaged the service of one Mr. Pettiford, an American sharp-shooter who helped bring down Ibadan war-chiefs. Besides, the Iperu war also coincided with the period when the Ibadan war general, the Balogun was on sick bed. More importantly, with the closure of the source of ammunition, the Ibadan army also faced the problem of procuring gunpowder for their guns. All these factors combined made liberation of Iperu herculean task.

            After much loss on both sides, the Alaafin intervened. The emblem of Sango was sent to both belligerent parties. Both sides agreed to the term of settlement and free movement between the two camps was resumed. Significantly, despite the armistice between the two parties, the Egba covertly planned to storm the Ibadan camp by surprise. The Ibadan who had once experienced the treacherous breach of treaty by the Egba equally expected treachery. While the Ibadan were decamping, the Egba-Ijaye-Ijebu forces quickly pounced on them. A lot of captives were made from the Ibadan, majority of whom were women and children. In fact, only few Ibadan war-chiefs escaped being captured.

After the Ijaye war, the Yoruba country did not experience peace until the British intervention. Rather than disbanding their army, the Egba and the Ijaye mobilized their forces towards Ikorodu which had aided the Ibadan in procuring ammunition during the Ijaye war. With the aid of the British administration in Lagos which requested immediate dispersal of the allied forces in the siege of Ikorodu, the Ikorodu war was brought to sudden end. The intervention of the British administration in Ikorodu war was not unconnected with the closure and insecurity of the Ikorodu route which was of more importance at the time of crisis.

By 1862, nearly all Yoruba states were at the mercy of Ibadan. Besides the Egba and the Ijebu who could still maintained diplomatic alliance or measure their strength with Ibadan no other Yoruba state dared contest the supremacy of Ibadan. During this time, Ibadan was gripped by the iron hand of a new dictator, Are Latosisa. Latosisa was powerful general who had distinguished himself in several battles. In fact, his very name struck terror in the heart of his contemporary. But he was feared not just for his military prowess. He was tyrannical too. Fearing that the personality of late Generals Ogunmola and Ibikunle would eclipse his own, Latosisa bent on carving out a niche for himself at all cost. His first task was to eliminate those powerful chiefs he considered threat to his reign. His first victim was the Iyalode of Ibadan, Madamme Efusetan a rich and influential woman. She was accused of not visiting and providing supplies for the war front. She was deposed and deprived of her privileges. She was murdered by her slaves at the instance of the Are. The venerable chief Aijenku, a veteran war chief, was frustrated and asked to commit suicide by Latosisa and his followers. The same fate was meted out to Seriki Iyapo.

To prevent the menace and incursion of the Ibadan forces into their territory, the Egba prevented the importation of ammunition into Ibadan. It happened that the Alafin purchased European guns through Porto novo. The responsibility of ensuring safe transportation of the ammunition was devolved on the Are who sent three contingents to ensure the safe passage through Egba territory. Although the ammunition was eventually imported, the Egba retaliated by closing all their routes to the Ibadan. On this account, both the Egba and Ibadan renewed their old hostility. The Ijebu who had been neutral before soon supported the Egba on the premise that hostility towards the Egba was no friendship to the Ijebu. Thus, in order to provoke war, Are Latosisa ordered his reluctant war lords to conduct raids and pillaging of the Egba territory. While this was going on, the Ijesa, the Ekiti, the Akoko and the Ife took the occasion to throw off the Ibadan authority. An alliance called the Ekiti Parapo was formed. Thousand of Oyo people were massacred by the allies. Seen the waves of revolt engulfing the Yoruba country, the Emir of Ilorin, who had always wanted the collapse of Ibadan imperial ambition, lent his military aid to the Ekiti. This was the beginning of the Ekiti Parapo otherwise known as the Kiriji war.

It is significant to note that, the revolt of the allied states against Ibadan was not unconnected with the haughtiness and tyranny of the Are whose representatives oppressed the vassal states. Besides, the unwary imperial ambition of Are Latosisa not only infuriated the Ibadan war chiefs who reluctantly marched to the war front but also strengthened the hostilities of the allies. In addition, the Kiriji war was the war of liberation in which the allies sought to throw off the yoke of Ibadan hegemony. Whereas the casualty of the war for both parties goes beyond measure, the war brought Ibadan to the peak of its imperial mission. For the first, the British administration was also allowed formal intervention in the affairs of the Yoruba. This was not because both belligerent parties preferred the white authority; it was simply because they were war-weary.

            In November 1851, the British through Consul Beecroft approached King Kosoko of Lagos to sign anti-slave trade treaty. The refusal of King Kosoko to sign this treaty was used as the excuse by the British to attack Lagos. But it should be noted that, even though the British professed the humanitarian reasons, they were also bent on exploiting the Yoruba country using Lagos as their base. In the battle that ensued, the British forces were humiliated and crushed. The shame of being defeated by African ruler prompted the British to re-launched attack on Lagos. Between December 24th and 28th, Lagos was bombarded by the British warship. Kosoko fled to Abeokuta while Akitoye a stooge of the British was intalled the new Eleko.  Between 12th and 15th May 1892, the Ijebu were forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the British. The reason for the Ijebu expedition was no more than the allegation of obstructing the peaceful trade and blocking of the trade routes. The significance of the subjugation of these Yoruba towns was that, a new power which not only opposed to any rivalry but also set to eclipse the aggressive Ibadan had emerged. Having witnessed the overwhelming superiority of the Whiteman’s technology, all the Yoruba towns and cities dreaded to resist entrance of the new imperial power.

            Between 1886 and 1893, the British mediated between the Ibadan and the Ekiti Parapo. Peace treaties were signed by the warring parties who also ready to desist from war. It is significant to note that these peace treaties contained clauses that subjugated states to the British government. The treaties also provided clauses that provided easy usurpation of the authority of the Yoruba traditional rulers. By 1897, it became clear that the British were bent on meddling with internal administration of the Yorubaland beyond supervision. In its characteristic Indirect Rule administration, the British established the Council of Chiefs with the British Traveling Commissioners as the Presidents. This was first experimented at Ibadan in1897. Similar step was taken in Ijebu districts, the Ijesa-Ekiti districts and Ondo districts between 1898 and 1900. The loophole of the Council was the language barrier between the chiefs and the British representatives. Another loophole of ordinance was that the British Traveling Commissioners usurped the functions of the Obas. In 1901, the new Native Ordinance was promulgated. This ordinance reduced the role of the British Resident to advisory in council. The new Ordinance also strengthened the power of some Obas (the Alaafin of Oyo, Alake of Egba, the Awujale of Ijebu and the Osemawe of Ondo) in Yorubaland.



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1 comment:

  1. Thanks for this Sir, I got all I needed in History of Oyo here.

    I'm your student Sir.

    ReplyDelete